Merck Frosst/CIHR Research Chair in Obesity, Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Québec, Canada. Denis.Richard@criucpq.ulaval.ca
The 39 item Parkinson's disease questionnaire (PDQ-39) is the most widely used patient reported rating scale in Parkinson's disease. However, several fundamental measurement assumptions necessary for confident use and interpretation of the eight PDQ-39 scales have not been fully addressed.
Postal survey PDQ-39 data from 202 people with Parkinson's disease (54% men; mean age 70 years) were analysed regarding psychometric properties using traditional and Rasch measurement methods.
Data quality was good (mean missing item responses, 2%) and there was general support for the legitimacy of summing items within scales without weighting or standardisation. Score reliabilities were adequate (Cronbach's alpha 0.72-0.95; test-retest 0.76-0.93). The validity of the current grouping of items into scales was not supported by scaling success rates (mean 56.2%), or factor and Rasch analyses. All scales represented more health problems than that experienced by the sample (mean floor effect 15%) and showed compromised score precision towards the less severe end.
Our results provide general support for the acceptability and reliability of the PDQ-39. However, they also demonstrate limitations that have implications for the use of the PDQ-39 in clinical research. The grouping of items into scales appears overly complex and the meaning of scale scores is unclear, which hampers their interpretation. Suboptimal targeting limits measurement precision and, therefore, probably also responsiveness. These observations have implications for the role of the PDQ-39 in clinical trials and evidence based medicine. PDQ-39 derived endpoints should be interpreted and selected cautiously, particularly regarding small but clinically important effects among people with less severe problems.
Department of Medicine, London Health Sciences Centre, University of Western Ontario, 339 Windermere Road, London, Ontario N6A 5A5, Canada. Kelly.Zarnke@lhsc.on.ca
To provide updated, evidence-based recommendations for the diagnosis and assessment of high blood pressure in adults.
For people with high blood pressure, the assignment of a diagnosis of hypertension depends on the appropriate measurement of blood pressure, the level of the blood pressure elevation, the duration of follow-up and the presence of concomitant vascular risk factors, target organ damage and established atherosclerotic diseases. For people diagnosed with hypertension, defining the overall risk of adverse cardiovascular outcomes requires laboratory testing, a search for target organ damage and an assessment of the modifiable causes of hypertension. Out-of-clinic blood pressure assessment and echocardiography are options for selected patients.
People at increased risk of adverse cardiovascular outcomes and were identified and quantified.
Medline searches were conducted from the period of the last revision of the Canadian recommendations for the management of hypertension (May 1998 to October 2000). Reference lists were scanned, experts were polled, and the personal files of the subgroup members and authors were used to identify other studies. All relevant articles were reviewed and appraised, using prespecified levels of evidence, by content experts and methodological experts.
A high value was placed on the identification of people at increased risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.
The identification of people at higher risk of cardiovascular disease will permit counselling for lifestyle manoeuvres and the introduction of antihypertensive drugs to reduce blood pressure for patients with sustained hypertension. In certain settings, and for specific classes of drugs, blood pressure lowering has been associated with reduced cardiovascular morbidity and/or mortality.
The present document contains detailed recommendations pertaining to aspects of the diagnosis and assessment of patients with hypertension, including the accurate measurement of blood pressure, criteria for the diagnosis of hypertension and recommendations for follow-up, routine and optional laboratory testing, assessment for renovascular hypertension, home and ambulatory blood pressure monitoring, and the role of echocardiography in hypertension.
All recommendations were graded according to strength of the evidence and voted on by the Canadian Hypertension Recommendations Working Group. Only the recommendations achieving high levels of consensus are reported here. These guidelines will be updated annually.
These recommendations are endorsed by the Canadian Hypertension Society, The Canadian Coalition for High Blood Pressure Prevention and Control, The College of Family Physicians of Canada, The Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada, The Adult Disease Division and Bureau of Cardio-Respiratory Diseases and Diabetes at the Centre for Chronic Disease Prevention and Control of Health Canada.
The 2004 Canadian Hypertension Education Program recommendations for the management of hypertension: Part I--Blood pressure measurement, diagnosis and assessment of risk.
To provide updated, evidence-based recommendations for the assessment of the diagnosis, cardiovascular risk and identifiable causes for adults with high blood pressure.
For persons in whom a high blood pressure value is recorded, the assignment of a diagnosis of hypertension is dependent on the appropriate measurement of blood pressure, the level of the blood pressure elevation and the duration of follow-up. In addition, the presence of concomitant vascular risk factors, target organ damage and established atherosclerotic diseases should be assessed to determine the urgency, intensity and type of treatment. For persons diagnosed as having hypertension, defining overall risk of adverse cardiovascular outcomes requires an assessment of concomitant vascular risk factors, including laboratory testing, a search for target organ damage and an assessment for modifiable causes of hypertension. Home and ambulatory blood pressure assessment and echocardiography are options for selected patients.
The identification of persons at increased risk of adverse cardiovascular outcomes; the quantification of overall cardiovascular risk; and the identification of persons with potentially modifiable causes of hypertension.
Medline searches were conducted from November 2001, one year before the period of the last revision of the Canadian recommendations for the management of hypertension, to October 2003. Reference lists were scanned, experts were polled, and the personal files of subgroup members and authors were used to identify other studies. Identified articles were reviewed and appraised using prespecified levels of evidence by content experts and methodological experts.
A high value was placed on the identification of persons at increased risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, and persons with identifiable and potentially modifiable causes of hypertension.
The identification of persons at higher risk of cardiovascular disease will permit counselling for lifestyle maneuvers and introduction of antihypertensive drugs to reduce blood pressure for patients with sustained hypertension. The identification of specific causes of hypertension may permit the use of cause-specific interventions. For certain subgroups of patients and specific classes of drugs, blood pressure lowering has been associated with reduced cardiovascular morbidity and/or mortality.
The document contains recommendations for blood pressure measurement, diagnosis of hypertension and assessment of cardiovascular risk for adults with high blood pressure. These include the accurate measurement of blood pressure, criteria for diagnosis of hypertension, and recommendations for follow-up, assessment of overall cardiovascular risk, routine and optional laboratory testing, assessment for renovascular and endocrine causes, home and ambulatory blood pressure monitoring, and the role of echocardiography for those with hypertension.
All recommendations were graded according to strength of evidence and voted on by the Canadian Hypertension Education Program Evidence-Based Recommendations Task Force. Only the recommendations that achieved high levels of consensus are reported. These guidelines will be updated annually.
To provide updated, evidence-based recommendations regarding the role of lifestyle modification in the treatment and prevention of hypertension.
Lifestyle modification interventions including exercise, weight reduction, alcohol consumption, dietary modification, intake of dietary cations and stress management are reviewed. Antioxidants and fish oil supplements are also reviewed, although specific recommendations cannot be made at present.
MEDLINE searches were conducted from January 2002 to September 2003 to update the 2001 recommendations for the management of hypertension. Supplemental searches in the Cochrane Collaboration databases were also performed. Reference lists were scanned, experts were contacted, and the personal files of the subgroup members and authors were used to identify additional published studies. All relevant articles were reviewed and appraised independently using prespecified levels of evidence by content and methodology experts.
Key recommendations include the following: lifestyle modification should be extended to nonhypertensive individuals who are at risk for developing high blood pressure; 30 min to 45 min of aerobic exercise should be performed on most days (four to five days) of the week; an ideal body weight (body mass index 18.5 kg/m2 to 24.9 kg/m2) should be maintained and weight loss strategies should use a multidisciplinary approach; alcohol consumption should be limited to two drinks or fewer per day, and weekly intake should not exceed 14 standard drinks for men and nine standard drinks for women; a reduced fat, low cholesterol diet that emphasizes fruits, vegetables and low fat dairy products, and maintains an adequate intake of potassium, magnesium and calcium, should be followed; salt intake should be restricted to 65 mmol/day to 100 mmol/day in hypertensive individuals and less than 100 mmol/day in normotensive individuals at high risk for developing hypertension; and stress management should be considered as an intervention in selected individuals.
All recommendations were graded according to the strength of the evidence and voted on by the Canadian Hypertension Education Program Evidence-Based Recommendations Task Force. Individuals with irreconcilable competing interests (declared by all members, compiled and circulated before the meeting) relative to any specific recommendation were excluded from voting on that recommendation. Only those recommendations achieving at least 70% consensus are reported here. These guidelines will continue to be updated annually.
To provide updated, evidence-based recommendations for the management of hypertension in adults.
For patients who require pharmacological therapy for hypertension, a number of antihypertensive agents may be used. Randomized trials evaluating first-line therapy with diuretics, beta-blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, calcium channel blockers (CCBs), alpha-blockers, centrally acting agents or angiotensin receptor antagonists were reviewed. Also, randomized trials evaluating other agents, such as statins or acetylsalicylic acid, in patients with hypertension were reviewed. Changes in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality were the primary outcomes of interest. In addition, other relevant outcomes such as development of end-stage renal disease or changes in blood pressure were examined where appropriate.
MEDLINE searches were conducted from November 2001 to October 2003 to update the 2001 Recommendations for the management of hypertension. Reference lists were scanned, experts were contacted, and the personal files of the subgroup members and authors were used to identify additional published studies. All relevant articles were reviewed and appraised independently, using prespecified levels of evidence by content and methodology experts.
This document contains detailed recommendations and supporting evidence on treatment thresholds, target blood pressures and choice of agents for hypertensive patients with or without comorbidities. Lifestyle modifications are a key component of any antiatherosclerotic management strategy and detailed recommendations are contained in a separate document. Key recommendations for pharmacotherapy include the following: treatment thresholds and targets should take into account each individual's global atherosclerotic risk, target organ damage and comorbidities, with particular attention to systolic blood pressure; blood pressure should be lowered to 140/90 mmHg or less in all patients, and 130/80 mmHg or less in those with diabetes mellitus or renal disease (125/75 mmHg or less in those with nondiabetic renal disease and more than 1 g of proteinuria per day); most adults with hypertension require more than one agent to achieve target blood pressures; for adults without compelling indications for other agents, initial therapy should include thiazide diuretics; other agents appropriate for first-line therapy for diastolic hypertension with or without systolic hypertension include beta-blockers (in those younger than 60 years), ACE inhibitors (in non-Blacks), long-acting dihydropyridine CCBs or angiotensin receptor antagonists; other agents appropriate for first-line therapy for isolated systolic hypertension include long-acting dihydropyridine CCBs or angiotensin receptor antagonists; certain comorbidities provide compelling indications for first-line use of other agents: in patients with angina, recent myocardial infarction or heart failure, beta-blockers and ACE inhibitors are recommended as first-line therapy; in patients with diabetes mellitus, ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor antagonists (or thiazides in patients with diabetes mellitus without albuminuria) are appropriate first-line therapies; and in patients with mild to moderate nondiabetic renal disease, ACE inhibitors are recommended; all hypertensive patients should have their fasting lipids screened and those with dyslipidemia should be treated using the thresholds, targets and agents as per the Recommendations for the management of dyslipidemia and the prevention of cardiovascular disease; and selected patients with hypertension should also receive statin and/or acetylsalicylic acid therapy.
All recommendations were graded according to the strength of the evidence and voted on by the Canadian Hypertension Education Program Evidence-Based Recommendations Task Force. Individuals with irreconcilable competing interests (declared by all members, compiled and circulated before the meeting) relative to any specific recommendation were excluded from voting on that recommendation. Only recommendations achieving at least 70% consensus are reported here. These guidelines will continue to be updated annually.
The 2005 Canadian Hypertension Education Program recommendations for the management of hypertension: part 1- blood pressure measurement, diagnosis and assessment of risk.
To provide updated, evidence-based recommendations for the diagnosis and assessment of adults with high blood pressure (BP).
For persons in whom a high BP value is recorded, the assignment of a diagnosis of hypertension is dependent on the appropriate measurement of BP, the level of the BP elevation and the duration of follow-up. In addition, the presence of cardiovascular risk factors and target organ damage should be assessed to determine the urgency, intensity and type of treatment. For persons diagnosed as having hypertension, estimating overall risk of adverse cardiovascular outcomes requires an assessment of other vascular risk factors and hypertensive target organ damage.
MEDLINE searches were conducted from November 2003 to October 2004 to update the 2004 recommendations. Reference lists were scanned, experts were polled, and the personal files of the authors and subgroup members were used to identify other studies. Identified articles were reviewed and appraised using prespecified levels of evidence by content and methodological experts. As per previous years, only studies that had been published in the peer-reviewed literature were included; evidence from abstracts, conference presentations and unpublished personal communications was not included.
This document contains recommendations for BP measurement, diagnosis of hypertension and assessment of cardiovascular risk for adults with high BP. These include the accurate measurement of BP, criteria for diagnosis of hypertension, and recommendations for follow-up, assessment of overall cardiovascular risk, routine and optional laboratory testing, assessment for renovascular and endocrine causes, home and ambulatory BP monitoring, and the role of echocardiography for those with hypertension. Key features of the 2005 recommendations include an expedited diagnostic algorithm for hypertension and an endorsement of the use of home/self and ambulatory BP assessment as validated techniques in establishing the diagnosis of hypertension.
All recommendations were graded according to the strength of the evidence and voted on by the 43 members of the Canadian Hypertension Education Program Evidence-Based Recommendations Task Force. All recommendations reported in the present paper received at least 95% consensus. These guidelines will continue to be updated annually.
To provide updated, evidence-based recommendations for the management of hypertension in adults.
For lifestyle and pharmacological interventions, evidence from randomized controlled trials and systematic reviews of trials was preferentially reviewed. While changes in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality were the primary outcomes of interest, for lifestyle interventions, blood pressure lowering was accepted as a primary outcome given the lack of long-term morbidity/mortality data in this field, and for certain comorbid conditions, other relevant outcomes, such as development of proteinuria or worsening of kidney function, were considered.
MEDLINE searches were conducted from November 2003 to October 2004 to update the 2004 recommendations. Reference lists were scanned, experts were contacted, and the personal files of the subgroup members and authors were used to identify additional published studies. All relevant articles were reviewed and appraised independently, using prespecified levels of evidence, by content and methodology experts. As per previous years, only studies that had been published in the peer-reviewed literature were included; evidence from abstracts, conference presentations and unpublished personal communications was not included.
Lifestyle modifications to prevent and/or treat hypertension include the following: perform 30 min to 60 min of aerobic exercise on four to seven days of the week; maintain a healthy body weight (body mass index of 18.5 kg/m2 to 24.9 kg/m2) and waist circumference (less than 102 cm for men and less than 88 cm for women); limit alcohol consumption to no more than 14 units per week in men or nine units per week in women; follow a reduced fat, low cholesterol diet with an adequate intake of potassium, magnesium and calcium; restrict salt intake; and consider stress management (in selected individuals). Treatment thresholds and targets should take into account each individual's global atherosclerotic risk, target organ damage and any comorbid conditions. Blood pressure should be lowered to 140/90 mmHg or less in all patients, and to 130/80 mmHg or less in those with diabetes mellitus or chronic kidney disease. Most adults with hypertension require more than one agent to achieve target blood pressures. For adults without compelling indications for other agents, initial therapy should include thiazide diuretics. Other agents appropriate for first-line therapy for diastolic hypertension with or without systolic hypertension include beta-blockers (in those younger than 60 years), angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors (except in black patients), long-acting calcium channel blockers and angiotensin receptor antagonists. Other agents appropriate for first-line therapy for isolated systolic hypertension include long-acting dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers and angiotensin receptor antagonists. Certain comorbid conditions provide compelling indications for first-line use of other agents: in patients with angina, recent myocardial infarction or heart failure, beta-blockers and ACE inhibitors are recommended as first-line therapy; in patients with diabetes mellitus, ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor antagonists (or thiazides in patients with diabetes mellitus without albuminuria) are appropriate first-line therapies; and in patients with nondiabetic chronic kidney disease, ACE inhibitors are recommended. All hypertensive patients should have their fasting lipids screened, and those with dyslipidemia should be treated using the thresholds, targets and agents recommended by the Canadian Hypertension Education Program Working Group on the management of dyslipidemia and the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Selected patients with hypertension, but without dyslipidemia, should also receive statin therapy and/or acetylsalicylic acid therapy.
All recommendations were graded according to the strength of the evidence and voted on by the 43 members of the Canadian Hypertension Education Program Evidence-Based Recommendations Task Force. All recommendations reported here achieved at least 95% consensus. These guidelines will continue to be updated annually.
Department of Medicine, Julia McFarlane Diabetes Research Centre, Diabetes and Endocrine Research Group, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alta. dcwlau@ucalgary.ca
Recent data from the World Health Organization (WHO) indicate that nearly one billion people in the world are suffering from hypertension. Forecasts suggest that, with the aging of the population, this number could reach 1.5 billion by 2025 (Kearney, Whelton, & Reynolds, 2005). In developed countries, more than one in five adults have hypertension (Vasan, Beiser, Seshadri, Larson, Kannel, & D'Agostino, 2002). Statistics for Canada reveal that fewer than 15% of those diagnosed with hypertension are adequately controlled (Joffres, Hamet, MacLean, L'italien, & Fodor, 2001). Part of the effort to improve hypertension detection, assessment and treatment is an annual process to produce and update evidence-based recommendations for the management of hypertension and to implement the recommendations (Zarnke, Campbell, McAlister, & Levine, 2000; Campbell, Nagpal, & Drouin, 2001). The most up-to-date 2007 Canadian recommendations for the assessment and management of hypertension are presented. Contemporary nursing practice requires that nurses take responsibility and a role in the primary prevention, detection and treatment of hypertension.
